Morgan's Rules of Thumb for Understanding Neuroscience
1. In the beginning,
God created physics. Much of neurophysiology can be understood with a
good understanding of the principles of physics.
2. Studying the nervous system is a bit like studying a foreign language.
Many structures have more than one name. Learn as many of them as you
can.
3. Structures in the nervous system are most often named after their appearance,
location, or function. If you can puzzle out these names, you can often
puzzle out the nature of the structure (this is why Latin and/or Greek
are good courses for the would-be psychology or biology student to take)
4. You can learn a lot about the brain by paying attention to:
*the mechanisms by which neurons produce their signals
*the
way in which neurons are connected to one another
*the
relationship between the various patterns of interconnections
to
different types of behavior
*the
means by which neurons and their connections are modified
by
experience.
5. Nature abhors an inequality (diffusion and electrostatic pressure are
two forces whose existence testifies to this).
6. One basic rule of thumb about action potentials is the ALL-OR-NONE
law, which states that an action potential either occurs, or does not
occur, and when it occurs, it travels down the axon in its entirety.
7. The magnitude of the action potential is the same, no matter what the
strength of the signal that initiated it. BUT--not every action potential
results in the release of the same amount of neurotransmitter. Sometimes
a lot is released, sometimes only a little, sometimes none at all. It
depends on the status of the axon terminals receiving the action potential
(see Rule # 13).
8. Remember, all that an action potential is, is the exchange of sodium
and potassium across the membrane of a neuron, resulting in a rapid depolarization
and repolarization of the cell membrane (a change in voltage inside from
-70mV to +30mV to -70mV again.)
9. It is the type of postsynaptic receptor that
is activated (and not the type of neurotransmitter used to activate it)
that determines whether or not the postsynaptic cell membrane is hyperpolarized
or depolarized by that neurotransmitter's release.
10. Integration of signals is what determines the firing of an action
potential (two common means of integration: spatial, and temporal).
11. Dale's Law: any single neuron makes use of the same NT at all of its
synapses (well, this is almost a law--there are a few exceptions!)
12. There may be a difference between the effects of a neurotransmitter
at the cellular level, and the effects of that neurotransmitter at the
organismic level.
13. During an action potential, a neuron may release all, none, or only
some of its neurotransmitter substance.
14. In general, the rate of a cell's firing conveys information about
the intensity of a stimulus.
15. In general, connections form and cells are maintained or die according
to a "use it or lose it" rule (an approach to neuroscience that
investigates this aspect of the brain is sometimes referred to as "Neural
Darwinism").
16. The way in which neurons are wired together in the nervous system
influences how we view the world, and what we perceive.
17. The brain shows lateralization of function, such that the two hemispheres
of the cortext serve somewhat different functional roles.
18. In general, the right side of the brain controls the left side of
the body, and vice-versa.
19. In general, more is better (ex. more neuronal mass, more skill in
whatever area is associated with that mass).
20. The human cortex is arranged in 6 identifiable layers, no matter what
its particular thickness might be in any one area.
21. There are many functional redundancies in the nervous system.
22. Nevertheless, function is largely localized in the brain.
23. In general, receptors in the nervous system are maximally responsive
to CHANGE.
ADD YOUR OWN RULES AS YOU LEARN MORE..........
Helpful Hints for Taking Multiple ChoiceTests
(These notes
are compiled from a number of sources on success in college, as well as
from my own experiences. However, the major source for this material is
Ellis, D. (1985). Becoming a Master Student, 5th edition. Rapid City,
SD: College Survival, Inc.)
1. Put The Test in Perspective
Tests in and of themselves are not dangerous. Unless turning the pages
gives you a paper cut, you cannot be injured by an exam. Yet, we can sometimes
react to them as though they were equivalent to a major exploratory surgery
performed by Freddie Kruger! One way to aid yourself in taking multiple
choice tests, or any other kind of test is to put the exam in perspective.
Grades (A through F) are what give tests power. And there are many misconceptions
about grades. Grades are not a measure of intelligence. They do not measure
creativity, nor social conscience, nor your value on this planet. Grades
are simply a measure of how well you did on one test on one particular
day.
Some people think that a test score measures what a student has learned
in a course. That is false. A test score is a measure of what a student
scored on a test. If you are anxious about a test and blank out, then
the grade obviously does not represent what you learned. Similarly, if
you are good at taking tests and a lucky guesser, your test score also
will not be an accurate measure of what you know.
Carrying around misconceptions about tests and grades can put undue pressure
on your performance. It is like walking on a railroad track. Most people
can stay balanced on the rail for at least 10 feet. However, imagine the
track is on a bridge 100 feet above a gorge. The task of walking balanced
on the rail then seems entirely different.
It is easier to do well on an exam if you don't exaggerate the pressure
on yourself. Don't give tests some magical power over your worth as a
human being. Academic tests are usually not a matter of life or death.
Even scoring low on very important tests--SAT's GRE's, law boards, medical
entrance exams--usually only means a delay.
The real risk (100 ft. fall) or the imagined risk) (F means personal failure)
of a performance can reach a point where is is paralyzing. The way to
deal with tests is to keep the risk in perspective. Keep the rail on the
ground.
2. Prepare for the Test
This seems so obvious, and yet, few people do a really adequate job of
preparing for an exam. You should review for exams daily, and weekly,
as well as just before the exam. This doesn't need to take as much time
as you think! Daily reviews can be very brief--5 or 10 minutes per subject.
Daily reviews include the short pre-and post-class review of lecture notes.
You can also conduct brief daily reviews when you read. Before you begin
a new reading assignment, scan the notes that you made and the sections
that your underlined in the previous assignment. Use the time that you
spend waiting for the laundry of between classes to conduct these short
reviews.
Concentrate daily reviews on two kinds of material: material that you
have just learned, either in class or in reading, and material that involves
simple memorization (equations, formulas, dates, definitions).
Conduct short daily reviews several times throughout the day. To make
sure that you do, include them in a daily "To Do" list. Write
down, "5 minute review of biology," or "10 min. review
of economics," and then give yourself the satisfaction of crossing
them off as you do them.
Weekly reviews are longer--about an hour per subject. These review periods
are also more structured that short daily reviews. When a subject is broad
or complex, the brain needs more time to process the material. Don't skip
from one subject to another too quickly. The content of weekly review
sessions should include a review of all of the assigned readings, review
of lecture notes and handouts, and practice answering questions in study
guides or in your own notes. Look over any flashcards or other study devices
that you have created.
Major reviews should commence about a week before a major test. They integrate
concepts and deepen understanding of the material. These should be longer
review periods, two to five hours at a stretch, punctuated by sufficient
breaks. Remember that your attention begins to be reduced after about
an hour or so unless you give yourself a short rest.
After a certain point, short breaks every hour will not be enough to keep
your attention from wandering. That's when it's time to quit. Each of
us has our own limit. Learn what your limits are by being conscious of
the quality of your concentration. During long study sessions, start by
reviewing the most difficult material first, when you are most alert.
To combat procrastination, create a system of rewards for yourself, for
time spent reviewing. Two hours of real work equals one hour in The Loft,
for ex. Make yourself promises, and keep them! Your commitment to review
is your most powerful ally.
3. Use the Study Guide (or Create Your Own)
Study guides are used the way a pilot uses a pre-flight check list. Pilots
go through a standard routine before they take off. They physically mark
off each item: test flaps, check magneto, check fuel tanks, adjust instruments,
check rudder. They use a written list to be absolutely sure that they
don't miss anything. Once they are in the air, it's too late, and the
consequences of making an error are drastic.
Taking a test is like flying a plane. Once the exam begins, it's too late
to memorize that one equation that you forgot. And the consequences could
be unpleasant! Use your study guide handed out in class as your personal
pre-exam checklist. Then, when you conduct your final review, check off
items as you review them. If your instructor does not give you a study
guide, make your own. List the various types of problems you will need
to solve. Write down other skills you must master--major ideas, definitions,
theories, formulas, dates, etc.
4. Predict What Will Be On the Test
In this class, I give you a study guide to help you in this endeavor.
However, I also give you many other clues, which you can look for in other
classes as well.
If you haven't done so in your other courses, ask your instructor to describe
the test format--how long will it be, what kind of questions, etc. Keep
a separate section in your notebook for a course called "Possible
Test Questions." Add several of them after each lecture and after
you read assignments for the course.
In lectures you can watch for potential test questions by observing not
only WHAT the instructor says, but HOW s/he says it. Instructors give
clues. They might repeat a point several times, or write it on the board,
or return to it in subsequent classes. Pay attention to questions that
the instructor poses to the class. Note the questions that other students
ask. When material from reading assignments is also covered in class,
it is likely to be on the test.
5. Test-Taking in General
If there are not too many questions, answer the easiest ones first. This
gives you the experience of success and stimulates associations, preparing
your mind for the more difficult questions.
Use memory techniques if you're stuck. If your recall on a particular
point is blocked, remember something else that's related. Draw outlines
or other notes in the test margin to stimulate your memory.
Pace yourself. Watch the time; is you are stuck, move on. Don't let one
difficult question cost you many points in unanswered questions.
Look for answers in other test questions. A term, a name, date, or other
fact that escapes you in one place might show up elsewhere on the test
itself. If there is more than one question on the same concept or topic,
check to see that your answers agree with one another.
6. Multiple-Choice Tests in Particular
A. READ THE DIRECTIONS on the top of your exam.
Some multiple choice tests call for more than one correct answer. Some
ask for the one best answer. Be sure you know what is expected of you.
B. Answer each question in
your head BEFORE you look at the possible answers.
If you can come up with the answer before you look at the choices, you
eliminate the possibility of being confused by those choices.
C. Make a notation next to questions that you can't answer immediately,
and go on. Come back to those later if you have time.
D. Multiple-choice questions have an anatomy. The "question"
part is called a stem, and it should lead grammatically to one or more
of four or five options listed directly under it. One of these is the
correct answer. The others are called distractors, or decoys.
Ex. According to your text, psychology
is defined as: {STEM}
a.
study of behavior {DISTRACTOR}
b.
study of individual differences {DISTRACTOR}
c.
science of behavior and the mind {CORRECT ANSWER}
d.
study of mental phenomena {DISTRACTOR}
It is very important that you make yourself READ EVERY POSSIBLE
ANSWER. Don't be in a rush to mark the first option that
sounds good. In some questions, ALL the options might be correct, and
you have to choose the best one, or the one that says "all of the
above." You won't know this unless you read all the options. One
way to train yourself to do this is to treat each multiple -choice question
as four true-false questions. Eliminate those that you know to be false
by crossing them off on your test. Of course, there may always be a few
potential answers that you are unable to judge as true or false. However,
if you can decide that more than one answer is true, and the test does
not call for more than one correct answer, re-read the question again
to make sure that you have interpreted it correctly. Then look for an
answer such as "all of the above." If there is such an answer,
choose it. If there is NOT, re-evaluate your decisions
on the truth or falsity of the answers you have considered.
E. Eliminate answers that you KNOW are distractors. Cross
them off on your exam sheet. Even if you have only a few minutes to go
back to a question, you will have narrowed your choices and increased
your chances of guessing the correct answer, if you end up having to guess.
F. If you do not understand a question, or the meaning of a word, or the
meaning of a possible answer, ASK ME!!! The
worst I can do is say "I can't answer that." The best I can
do is tell you the right answer! If you have ANY doubt about your interpretations
of a question, ask me to confirm your understanding. Don't twist the questions
into something thatthey are not. Be sure that you are answering what you
are asked, and nothing more.
G. Be cautious when an answer includes such absolute words as "every",
"always", and "never." There are very few situations
in which something is always true or never true.
H. Look for key words and phrases in both stem and possible answers. (Ex.
Which of the following is not..." or "According to you text..."
or "The strongest evidence....") Sometimes I point out this
key to you by underlining it, or putting it in bold face, or capitol letters
These should be used as clues.
I. If you STILL have no clue, and if you are not penalized for guessing,
use the following guidelines to guess:
1. If two answers are
similar, except for one or two words,
choose
one of these answers.
2. If two answers have
similar sounding or looking words
(ex.
intermediate, intermittent), choose one of these answers.
3. If the answer calls
for a sentence completion, eliminate those
answers
that would not form a grammatically correct sentence.
4. If there is no penalty
for guessing and none of these techniques
work,
close your eyes and go for it. Unless you are penalized(br>for guessing,
NEVER
LEAVE A QUESTION BLANK!!!
Doing the PSY 227 Research Summaries
For some of
the homeworks and projects we do in this class, you are asked to submit
a research summary. A research summary should be written up as a short
research or lab report. As such, they should follow the natural progression
of a research paper, though they need be no more than one or two pages
in length. Writing assignments must be typed, double-spaced, with your
name on the LAST PAGE of the assignment.
Your writing assignments should have these basic parts:
1. An Introduction: In this section, you introduce
the topic and explain the question that your study asks. Why did you
conduct this investgation? Show the reader how what you did is a logical
progression from what is already known.
2. Methods: Describe in detail your procedure, your
subjects, and any equipment that you used. Be sure to explain your methods
sufficiently, so that a naïve reader could replicate your study.
That means that you should indicate your operational definitions, etc.
3. Results: Describe your results. While you may use
tables and graphs, you should accompany these with enough text that
they are clearly interprettable by a naive reader. In other words, don't
just say "See graph." That is NOT OKAY.
Put your results in prose.
4. Discussion: Discuss and interpret your results here.
How do they answer the question that you set out to answer? How do they
fail to do so? What do you think they might mean?
5. References: If you utilize citations (which I encourage),
be certain to include a brief reference section using the following
citation format:
Adamo, S.A. & R.T. Hanlon. (1996). Do cuttlefish (Cephalopoda)
signal their intentions to conspecifics during agonistic encounters?
Animal Behavior, 52, 73-81.
ONLY list references that you actually cite (don't include those that
you only consult), and be sure to list any references that you DO cite.
A Few Things to Remember:
1. Use the spell-checker function to proof your paper BEFORE you turn
it in. Yes, spelling will count!
2. When referring to the genus and species of an organism, put these
Latin names in italics. The tradition is italicized genus and species
names, with the first letter of the genus name capitalized. Ex. Homo
sapiens, Macaca mulatta, Eublepharis macularis.
3. Use the grammar checker, too, if you know you have some trouble with
run-on sentences, sentence structure, etc.
4. If you include graphs, tables, or figures in your paper, be sure
to refer to them in the body of the paper, so that your reader knows
that s/he should go looking for them.
5. Do NOT write your paper with me as the intended audience. Write your
paper with an intelligent, science-minded audience in mind, but an audience
that does NOT consist of people in our class. DO NOT ASSUME that the
reader knows what YOU know about what the assignment was, or what we
have done in class.
Sample Writing Assignment: The
Structure Of Human Groups
Use the writing assignment below to model your own write-up
Introduction
One of the easiest things to observe when looking at animals is how
they group themselves. Most species in the Order Primata live in some
kind of social group (Richard, 1985), but group structure is highly
varied across species (Cohen, 1971). In this paper, I report the results
of a study of the grouping of human beings, Homo sapiens.
Methods
I conducted my study on a Wednesday afternoon, from 1:00 to 1:30pm.
To conduct my study, I sat at a table in the Balfour-Hood Cafe near
the entrance to the building. I sat in such a way that I could easily
see people coming in through the doors. I only recorded data on groups
coming into (not going out of) the building.
For each group that I saw passing through the doors on their way into
the building, I recorded how many men and women were in the group on
a pre-made data sheet. I defined a group as any number of persons that
were within an arm's distance of one another, and that were interacting
in some way (talking, touching, etc.). Thus, one person by themselves
could be considered a group using my definition.
Results
At the end of a half-hour's observation time, I had observed a total
of 62 groups. Of these, 28 (45%) were groups of two, 15 (24%) were single
people not in groups, 11 (18%) were groups of three, and 8 (13%) were
groups of four. Figure 1 shows the distribution of these group types.
Across all groups, a total of 41 (66%) females and 21 (33%) males were
observed. This is roughly the distribution of females to males at Wheaton
College, and so it was not too surprising. What was surprising, though,
was how males and females organized themselves into groups.
For example, all 8 (100%) single people observed were male. No females
were observed entering Balfour-Hood alone. Of the groups of two, 13
(46%) were all-female groups, 13 (46%) were male-female groups, and
only 2 (8%) were all-male groups. Out of the 11 groups of three, 6 (55%)
were all-female groups, 4 (36%) consisted of one female and two males,
and the remaining 1 (9%) consisted of one male and two females. Finally,
in the groups of four, 3 (37%) were all-female groups, 1 (13%) consisted
of two females and two males, and the remaining 4 (50%) consisted of
one female and three males. Figure 2 shows how the sexes were distributed
across group types.
Discussion
In my observations, only males were observed alone. This suggests that
females at Wheaton might be more sociable or comfortable in groups than
males at Wheaton. Alternatively, males at Wheaton might be ostracized
for being so different from the majority (which are women) and thus
not readily accepted into groups.
The other data that I collected, though, make the idea of males being
ostracized unlikely. In all cases, males were most often seen with females,
or by themselves, whereas females were never seen by themselves, but
only with other females or with males. Males also were never seen with
other males. Thus it looks like males form groups, but mostly with females,
whereas females may prefer groups, and will form groups with females
as well as other males.
Finally, as groups grew larger, more males than females were observed
in the groups. Perhaps the way that males feel most comfortable in large
groups at Wheaton is when there are other males around. Since there
are more women at Wheaton than men, men may need to have other members
of the same sex present in order to feel comfortable in larger groups
of women. Alternatively, since there are less men at Wheaton than there
are women, it may simply be that by chance alone, if a man is to be
in a group at all, he is more likely to be seen in a group with women
than in a group with other men.
References:
Cohen, J. (1971). Casual Groups of Monkeys and Men. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
Richard, A.F. (1985). Primates in Nature. New York, NY: W.H.
Freeman & Co.
Figures:
Figure 1: Distribution of humans observed over all group types
(*"Baseless Science" Detector)
(Modified from Benoit and others)
1. Be skeptical. (If it sounds too good to be true, it probably is.)
2. Consider the source. (Of course the tobacco industry will claim that tobacco is harmless, and the DEA will claim that the "War on Drugs" must be expanded.)
3. Is it an observation, an inference, or an opinion? (Observations, inferences, and opinions aren't necessarily very scientific.)
4. Is there any comparison made? (For example, if a research study, is there a control group? Might the results have been obtained no matter what the treatment? If an opinion or idea, does the author compare his/her idea or opinion to those of others? Does s/he seem to be aware of the ideas and opinions of others?)
5. If a comparison is made, does it appear to be a valid one, or is it merely a "straw dog" selected by the author for the ease with which it can be knocked over?
6. Is it a correlation, or a cause? (Just because a link or relationship is seen between two or more things doesn't mean that one thing causes the other.)
7. Is the author oversimplifying?
8. Can what the author asserts be tested in any way? (In other words, can one attempt to disprove the author's ideas?) (back to top)
~~~~~~~~~~
Drug Web and Internet Site Evaluator
(Drug W.I.S.E.)
Web sites related to psychoactive drugs can vary widely in terms of quality, accuracy, and value. Anyone can set up a web site that looks authoritative. How can you evaluate the content of a web site on psychoactive drugs?
Here are some key questions that should be asked in order to come up with a profile of a web site. You should use them to help you critically evaluate and take notes on sites.
1. What is the URL? (give the address beginning with http://)
2. Who is the author, contact person, or webmaster?
3. What is the affiliation, title, and/or sponsor of this site?
4. What is the latest date of revision? Is it kept up to date?
5. How did you locate this site?
6. What is the statement of purpose, and what audience is intended?
7. Is the site primarily informational? Instructional?
8. Does the site advocate or support a position?
9. How much information is available at this site?
10. Is the information referenced? What are the references?
11. What links are offered to other sites, if any, and what is their purpose?
12. What is most striking about this site, and what kind of overall description would be most appropriate for it?
These questions should provide a starting framework that is suitable for analyzing the structure and purpose of a web page that deals with psychoactive drugs.(back to top)